flowchart LR
S[Sender / Source<br/>has an idea] --> E[Encoding<br/>idea → symbols]
E --> M[Message]
M --> CH[Channel<br/>medium]
CH --> D[Decoding<br/>symbols → idea]
D --> R[Receiver]
R -. Feedback .-> S
N[Noise<br/>interferes with channel] -. interferes .-> CH
classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;
4 Communication — Types, Process and Barriers
4.1 What is Communication?
Communication is the transfer and understanding of meaning (Robbins). The two italicised words matter equally. Transfer without understanding is just noise; understanding without transfer is private cognition. Stephen Robbins distinguishes communication from mere talking by insisting that the message must reach the receiver in a form the receiver can interpret.
Koontz and Weihrich treat communication as the blood-stream of an organisation — the medium through which planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling happen. Chester Barnard went further in The Functions of the Executive (1938), arguing that “the first function of an executive is to develop and maintain a system of communication”.
TipWorking Definitions
| Author | Definition | What it foregrounds |
|---|---|---|
| Louis Allen | “The sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.” | Two-way, continuous |
| Keith Davis | “The process of passing information and understanding from one person to another.” | Information + understanding |
| Newman & Summer | “An exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.” | Exchange |
| W.H. Newman | “Communication is an interchange of thoughts, opinions or information by speech, writing or signs.” | Multi-channel exchange |
| Theo Haimann | “Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to another.” | Process |
TipSix features of communication
- Two-way process — sender and receiver, with feedback closing the loop.
- Continuous — happens every working moment.
- Pervasive — across every level and every function.
- Goal-oriented — to inform, persuade, instruct, command, motivate or coordinate.
- Dynamic — context, channel, sender state all change moment to moment.
- Verbal and non-verbal — words carry less than half the meaning (see §non-verbal).
4.2 Process of Communication
The Shannon–Weaver model (Bell Labs, 1949) — borrowed from telecommunications — supplied the canonical schema. David Berlo’s S-M-C-R model (The Process of Communication, 1960) tightened it for the social sciences.
4.2.1 Shannon-Weaver Model (1949) — Seven Elements
TipSeven elements of the communication process
| # | Element | What happens |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Sender / Source | Originator of the message; has an idea or feeling to share |
| 2 | Encoding | Conversion of idea into symbols — words, signs, gestures |
| 3 | Message | The symbol set actually transmitted |
| 4 | Channel / Medium | Vehicle that carries the message — voice, paper, e-mail, video |
| 5 | Receiver | Person/group for whom the message is intended |
| 6 | Decoding | Receiver translates the symbols back to meaning |
| 7 | Feedback | Receiver’s response; closes the loop |
Noise — anything that distorts or interferes with the message — is the eighth concept. Three families: physical (a loud machine), semantic (ambiguous word), and psychological (the receiver’s preoccupation).
4.2.2 Berlo’s SMCR Model (1960)
David K. Berlo collapsed the same idea into four blocks, each with five sub-factors:
TipBerlo’s SMCR — four blocks, five sub-factors each
| Block | Sub-factors |
|---|---|
| S — Source | Communication skills · Attitudes · Knowledge · Social system · Culture |
| M — Message | Content · Elements · Treatment · Structure · Code |
| C — Channel | Hearing · Seeing · Touching · Smelling · Tasting (five senses) |
| R — Receiver | Communication skills · Attitudes · Knowledge · Social system · Culture |
NotePYQ cue — older models
- Aristotle’s model (~350 BCE): Speaker → Speech → Audience. The earliest documented communication model.
- Lasswell’s model (1948): Who · Says What · In Which Channel · To Whom · With What Effect.
- Schramm’s model (1954): Encoder → Interpreter → Decoder — first to depict communication as a circular rather than linear flow; introduced the field of experience — shared overlap between sender and receiver.
- Westley & MacLean (1957): added gate-keeping in mass communication.
4.3 Types of Communication
Communication is classified along several cross-cutting axes.
4.3.1 By Direction / Flow
TipFour directions of organisational communication
| Direction | Example | Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Downward | Boss → subordinate; CEO → staff | Directions, instructions, policy |
| Upward | Subordinate → boss; staff → CEO | Suggestions, complaints, reports |
| Horizontal / Lateral | Manager A ↔︎ Manager B (same level) | Coordination, joint problem-solving |
| Diagonal / Crosswise | Production worker → Finance manager | Bypasses the chain when speed matters |
4.3.2 By Channel / Formality
TipFormal vs Informal
| Type | Definition | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Formal | Through official channels; structured by the chain of command | Memos, meetings, reports, official emails |
| Informal (Grapevine) | Unofficial; through social and personal contacts | Tea-break chat, WhatsApp groups, rumour |
4.3.3 By Mode
TipVerbal vs Non-verbal vs Written
| Mode | Sub-types | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Oral / Verbal | Face-to-face, phone, video call | Meeting, interview, presentation |
| Written | Letter, e-mail, memo, report | Most legal and audit communication |
| Non-verbal | Kinesics, paralanguage, proxemics, chronemics, haptics, appearance | Posture, tone, distance, time, touch, dress |
4.3.4 By Number of Receivers
- Intrapersonal — within oneself (thought, self-talk).
- Interpersonal — between two persons.
- Group — small group, e.g. team meeting.
- Mass — to a large dispersed audience, e.g. corporate communication, advertising.
4.4 The Grapevine — Informal Communication
Keith Davis’s classic study (Harvard Business Review, 1953) identified four grapevine patterns that explain how informal information actually flows:
TipDavis’s four grapevine patterns
| Pattern | How it spreads | Typical use |
|---|---|---|
| Single Strand | A tells B, B tells C, C tells D — a chain | Most accurate in early stages; vulnerable to distortion |
| Gossip Chain | One person tells many; least selective | Spread of non-job information (social events) |
| Probability Chain | One person tells some, those tell some, randomly | Information of moderate interest |
| Cluster Chain | One person tells a few selected; each of those tells a few selected | Most common in organisations; selective transmission |
NoteWhy managers should not try to eliminate the grapevine
Davis showed that the grapevine is 70–80 % accurate and travels faster than formal channels. It cannot be eliminated; it can be made an ally — listen to it for early warning, do not punish its participants, and feed it correct information when rumours run wild.
4.5 Channels and Information Richness
Richard Daft and Robert Lengel (1986) ranked communication channels by information richness — the capacity to carry multiple cues, immediate feedback, language variety and personal focus.
TipChannel richness — from richest to leanest
| Rank | Channel | Cues carried |
|---|---|---|
| Richest | Face-to-face | Words + tone + body language + immediate feedback |
| Video conference | Words + tone + partial body language | |
| Telephone | Words + tone | |
| Personalised written (email, letter) | Words + personal focus | |
| Formal written (memo, report) | Words only | |
| Leanest | Numeric, posted notice | Words / numbers, no personal cues |
Rule: use rich channels for non-routine, ambiguous messages (a layoff, a strategy shift); use lean channels for routine, clear messages (a meeting reminder).
4.6 Non-verbal Communication
Albert Mehrabian’s frequently-cited rule (Silent Messages, 1971) — the 55-38-7 rule — applies only to communication of feelings and attitudes, but is widely quoted: 55 % body language, 38 % tone of voice, 7 % spoken words. The point is that non-verbal cues dominate when verbal and non-verbal signals conflict.
TipBranches of non-verbal communication
| Branch | Studies | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Kinesics | Body movement, gesture, facial expression | A nod, a frown |
| Paralanguage | Tone, pitch, speed, pause | “Yes” said with sarcasm vs sincerity |
| Proxemics (E.T. Hall, 1966) | Use of space and distance | Intimate / personal / social / public zones |
| Chronemics | Use of time | Punctuality, response speed |
| Haptics | Touch | Handshake, pat on the back |
| Oculesics | Eye contact | Gaze duration |
| Olfactics | Smell | Perfume, hygiene |
| Appearance | Dress, grooming | First impression |
NoteEdward T. Hall’s four proxemic zones (1966)
Intimate (0–18 in / 0–45 cm) · Personal (18 in – 4 ft / 45 cm – 1.2 m) · Social (4–12 ft / 1.2–3.6 m) · Public (> 12 ft / > 3.6 m). Distance varies by culture — high-contact cultures (Latin, Arab) stand closer than low-contact ones (Japanese, British).
4.7 The Seven C’s of Effective Communication
Coined by Francis J. Bergin and developed by Murphy, Hildebrandt and Thomas (Effective Business Communications), the seven C’s are the most-cited checklist for written and spoken business communication.
TipThe Seven C’s
| C | Meaning | Test |
|---|---|---|
| Completeness | All facts the receiver needs | Five Ws — Who, What, Where, When, Why |
| Conciseness | No unnecessary words | Can any sentence be cut without loss? |
| Consideration | “You-attitude” — focus on receiver | Reframe “we offer” as “you get” |
| Concreteness | Specific, vivid facts and figures | Replace “many” with “73” |
| Clarity | Plain, unambiguous language | Would a reader interpret it only one way? |
| Courtesy | Polite, respectful tone | Polite even when delivering bad news |
| Correctness | Right facts, right grammar, right tone | Spell-check; fact-check; tone-check |
NoteMnemonic
5C + CC — Completeness · Conciseness · Consideration · Concreteness · Clarity + Courtesy · Correctness.
4.8 Barriers to Communication
Barriers are anything that distorts the message between sender and receiver. The classical Indian-textbook classification has five families:
TipFive families of communication barriers
| Family | Examples |
|---|---|
| Physical / Environmental | Distance, noise, faulty equipment, defective channels |
| Semantic / Language | Ambiguous words, technical jargon, poor translation, bypassing |
| Psychological / Emotional | Premature evaluation, lack of attention, fear, distrust, status difference, emotional state |
| Organisational | Rigid hierarchy, scalar chain too long, information overload, faulty filtering |
| Personal / Socio-cultural | Lack of confidence, attitude, perception, gender, culture difference |
NoteThree named barriers worth memorising
- Filtering — sender deliberately manipulates information to make it look favourable to the receiver (upward communication).
- Selective perception — receiver hears only what fits prior beliefs.
- Information overload — too much information for the receiver to process; classic in modern e-mail-heavy work.
4.9 Overcoming Barriers — Effective Communication
TipPractical guides to effective communication
- Plan the message — clarify objective and audience before encoding.
- Use the right channel — match channel richness to message ambiguity.
- Use simple language — avoid jargon where the receiver is non-specialist.
- Encourage feedback — confirm decoding; do not assume understanding.
- Active listening — the receiver’s discipline; Carl Rogers’ “non-directive listening”.
- Reduce noise — fix physical noise; check for emotional noise.
- Be aware of non-verbal signals — your own and the receiver’s.
- Repeat through multiple channels for critical messages.
4.9.1 Active Listening — Carl Rogers
Psychologist Carl Rogers identified the discipline of active or empathetic listening — listening to understand rather than to reply. Its four marks are: full attention, suspension of judgement, paraphrasing, and reflective questioning.
4.10 Practice Questions
Q 01
Definition
Easy
Communication is best defined as:
View solution
Correct Option: C
Robbins's textbook definition: communication = transfer + understanding of meaning. One without the other is not communication.
Q 02
Barnard
Medium
"The first function of an executive is to develop and maintain a system of communication." This statement is attributed to:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Chester Barnard in The Functions of the Executive (1938).
Q 03
Shannon-Weaver
Easy
The Shannon-Weaver model of communication (1949) originally came from which field?
View solution
Correct Option: B
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver developed the model at Bell Telephone Labs in 1949 for telecommunications engineering. It was later adapted to social sciences by Berlo and others.
Q 04
Berlo SMCR
Medium
In Berlo's SMCR model, "C" stands for:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Berlo (1960): Source · Message · Channel · Receiver. Each block has five sub-factors.
Q 05
Process
Medium
Match each step with what happens in the communication process:
| (i) | Encoding | (a) | Idea → symbols |
| (ii) | Channel | (b) | Receiver's response |
| (iii) | Decoding | (c) | Medium carrying the message |
| (iv) | Feedback | (d) | Symbols → meaning |
View solution
Correct Option: A
Encoding = idea→symbols; Channel = medium; Decoding = symbols→meaning; Feedback = receiver's response.
Q 06
Older Models
Hard
The "Who · Says What · In Which Channel · To Whom · With What Effect" formula was given by:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Harold Lasswell's 1948 model — five questions in one sentence. Schramm added the *field of experience*; Aristotle's model is Speaker → Speech → Audience; Berlo gave SMCR.
Q 07
Direction
Easy
A subordinate sending a project status report to the boss is an example of:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Information flowing from subordinate to superior is upward communication.
Q 08
Grapevine
Medium
Keith Davis's most commonly observed grapevine pattern is:
View solution
Correct Option: D
Davis (1953) found the Cluster Chain is the dominant grapevine pattern — one person tells a few selected, each of those tells a few selected.
Q 09
Grapevine
Medium
According to Keith Davis, the grapevine is approximately what per cent accurate?
View solution
Correct Option: C
Davis found grapevines run 70–80 % accurate and faster than formal channels. Best managed by listening to it, not suppressing it.
Q 10
Channel Richness
Medium
In Daft and Lengel's channel-richness ranking, the richest channel is:
View solution
Correct Option: D
Daft & Lengel (1986): face-to-face is the richest — words + tone + body language + instant feedback. Use rich channels for ambiguous, high-stakes messages.
Q 11
Non-verbal
Medium
Mehrabian's "55-38-7" rule attributes 55 % of communication of feelings to:
View solution
Correct Option: C
Mehrabian's Silent Messages (1971): 55 % body language, 38 % tone, 7 % spoken words — but only for communication of feelings and attitudes.
Q 12
Non-verbal
Medium
The study of use of space and distance in communication is called:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Proxemics — Edward T. Hall (1966). Four zones: intimate, personal, social, public. Kinesics = body movement; Chronemics = time; Haptics = touch.
Q 13
Non-verbal
Hard
Match the non-verbal branch with what it studies:
| (i) | Kinesics | (a) | Touch |
| (ii) | Chronemics | (b) | Body movement |
| (iii) | Haptics | (c) | Tone, pitch, pause |
| (iv) | Paralanguage | (d) | Use of time |
View solution
Correct Option: A
Kinesics — body movement; Chronemics — time; Haptics — touch; Paralanguage — tone/pitch/pause.
Q 14
7 C's
Easy
Which of the following is not one of the Seven C's of effective communication?
View solution
Correct Option: C
7 C's = Completeness · Conciseness · Consideration · Concreteness · Clarity · Courtesy · Correctness. Confidence is not on the list.
Q 15
Barriers
Easy
Use of technical jargon by a manager addressing non-technical staff is a:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Language and meaning barriers are semantic. Jargon, ambiguous words, poor translation, and "bypassing" (same word, different meaning) all sit here.
Q 16
Barriers
Medium
A subordinate deliberately hides bad news from the boss to look favourable. This is the barrier of:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Filtering — sender manipulates information to look favourable. Selective perception is on the receiver's side; information overload is volume-related; noise is interference.
Q 17
Schramm
Hard
The concept of "field of experience" — the shared overlap between sender and receiver — was introduced by:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Wilbur Schramm (1954) introduced the *field of experience* in his circular communication model — the larger the overlap, the easier the communication.
Q 18
Active Listening
Medium
The discipline of "active or empathetic listening" is most associated with:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Psychologist Carl Rogers developed the discipline of *non-directive, empathetic listening* — listening to understand, not to reply.
Q 19
Direction
Medium
A production worker bypassing the chain and directly contacting the finance manager for a clarification is:
View solution
Correct Option: C
Diagonal / crosswise communication cuts across both levels and departments — used when speed is essential. Fayol's "Gangplank" allows it with prior permission.
Q 20
Match Model–Author
Hard
Match the communication model with its author:
| (i) | Speaker → Speech → Audience | (a) | Berlo |
| (ii) | Who · says what · in which channel · to whom · with what effect | (b) | Aristotle |
| (iii) | SMCR | (c) | Lasswell |
| (iv) | Circular model / field of experience | (d) | Schramm |
View solution
Correct Option: A
Aristotle (~350 BCE) — speaker/speech/audience; Lasswell (1948) — five-question formula; Berlo (1960) — SMCR; Schramm (1954) — circular model with field of experience.
4.10.1 Advanced Format Questions
AR 1Assertion-ReasonHard
A: Feedback completes the communication process.
R: Without feedback the sender cannot verify correct receipt.
View solution
Correct Option: A
AR 2Assertion-ReasonMedium
A: Grapevine spreads quickly in informal channels.
R: Grapevine has no useful organisational function.
View solution
Correct Option: C
Grapevine has organisational utility (early warning, employee mood).
S 1Statement-basedMedium
Which are barriers to communication? (i) Semantic. (ii) Physical. (iii) Psychological. (iv) Organisational.
View solution
Correct Option: A
S 2Statement-basedHard
Correct: (i) Shannon-Weaver model is linear. (ii) Berlo's SMCR adds context. (iii) Schramm model is circular. (iv) Aristotle's model is one-way.
View solution
Correct Option: A
4.11 Quick Recall
ImportantQuick recall
- Definition: communication = transfer + understanding of meaning (Robbins). Barnard — first function of an executive is to maintain a system of communication.
- Shannon-Weaver (1949) — 7 elements: Sender · Encoding · Message · Channel · Decoding · Receiver · Feedback (+ Noise).
- Berlo SMCR (1960) — Source · Message · Channel · Receiver, each with 5 sub-factors.
- Older models: Aristotle (Speaker→Speech→Audience); Lasswell (1948 — Who/Says What/Channel/To Whom/Effect); Schramm (1954 — circular, field of experience); Westley-MacLean (1957 — gatekeeping).
- Four directions: Downward, Upward, Horizontal/Lateral, Diagonal/Crosswise.
- Formal vs Informal (Grapevine) — Keith Davis (1953): 4 patterns (Single Strand, Gossip, Probability, Cluster — most common); grapevine is 70–80 % accurate.
- Channel richness (Daft & Lengel 1986): face-to-face > video > phone > email > formal report > posted notice.
- Mehrabian (1971) 55-38-7 — body language 55 %, tone 38 %, words 7 % (for feelings only).
- Non-verbal branches: Kinesics (body), Paralanguage (tone), Proxemics (space — Hall 1966), Chronemics (time), Haptics (touch), Oculesics (eye).
- Hall’s 4 zones: Intimate · Personal · Social · Public.
- 7 C’s — Completeness · Conciseness · Consideration · Concreteness · Clarity · Courtesy · Correctness.
- 5 barriers — Physical · Semantic · Psychological · Organisational · Personal. Named barriers: Filtering (sender), Selective perception (receiver), Information overload.
- Active / empathetic listening — Carl Rogers; listening to understand, not to reply.