25  HR Planning, Recruitment, Selection, Induction, Training and Development

25.1 Human Resource Planning

Human Resource Planning (HRP) — also called manpower planning — is the process of forecasting an organisation’s future demand for, and supply of, the right type of people in the right number, at the right place and at the right time (Dessler). Aswathappa adds that HRP is “a strategy for the acquisition, utilisation, improvement and preservation of an enterprise’s human resources”.

TipWorking Definitions of HRP
Author Definition Foregrounds
Edwin B. Geisler “The process of determining and assuring that the organisation will have adequate qualified persons available at proper times.” Forecast match
Coleman “The process of determining manpower requirements and the means for meeting those requirements.” Practical
K. Aswathappa “A strategy for the acquisition, utilisation, improvement and preservation of an enterprise’s human resources.” Strategic
Vetter “The process by which a firm ensures that it has the right number and right kind of people at the right time, capable of effectively and efficiently completing those tasks that will help the organisation achieve its overall objectives.” The “right” matrix

25.1.1 Steps in HRP

TipStandard six-step HRP process
# Step Activity
1 Analyse organisational objectives and strategy Translate the business plan into people implications
2 Forecast human-resource demand Number and kind of people needed
3 Forecast human-resource supply Internal (existing employees) + external (labour market)
4 Identify the gap (or surplus) Demand − Supply
5 Develop and implement action plans Recruitment, redeployment, training, retention; or VRS / right-sizing
6 Monitor, control and feedback Adjust as actuals deviate from forecasts 

flowchart LR
  S[1. Objectives /<br/>Strategy] --> D[2. Demand<br/>Forecast]
  S --> SP[3. Supply<br/>Forecast]
  D --> G[4. Gap<br/>Analysis]
  SP --> G
  G --> A[5. Action<br/>Plans]
  A --> M[6. Monitor /<br/>Feedback]
  M -. .-> S
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

25.1.2 Forecasting Techniques

TipForecasting techniques for HR demand and supply
Family Techniques
Qualitative Managerial judgement · Delphi · Nominal Group Technique
Quantitative — Time-series Trend extrapolation · Moving averages · Regression
Ratio analysis Work-load to manpower ratios
Work-study (industrial engineering) Time and motion studies
Skills inventory & Replacement charts Internal supply
Markov analysis Probability of movement between roles
NoteHard vs Soft HRP

Hard HRP — quantitative, supply-demand matching. Soft HRP — qualitative, integrating people values, culture, behaviours.

25.1.3 Levels of HRP

  • National HRP — government plans for the country (NITI Aayog, Skill India).
  • Sectoral HRP — industry-wide.
  • Organisational HRP — at the firm level.
  • Departmental HRP — within an HR function.

25.2 Job Analysis

Job Analysis (JA) is the systematic process of collecting information about a job — what tasks it involves and what qualifications it requires. It is the foundation of every other HR activity.

TipTwo outputs of Job Analysis
Output What it captures
Job Description (JD) What the job involves — duties, responsibilities, reporting, working conditions
Job Specification (JS) What the job requires — qualifications, skills, experience, abilities

25.2.1 Methods of Job Analysis

TipMethods of job analysis
  • Observation — direct watching.
  • Interview — structured / unstructured.
  • Questionnaire — Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ — McCormick 1972), Functional Job Analysis.
  • Diary / log method — employee records activities.
  • Critical incident technique (Flanagan 1954) — log notable incidents.
  • Job performance — analyst does the job.
  • Conference / Expert panel.
  • Competency mapping.
  • **O*NET** — US Department of Labor occupational database.

25.3 Recruitment

Recruitment is the process of searching for and attracting prospective candidates to apply for jobs. Selection is what follows recruitment. Yoder: “a process to discover the sources of manpower to meet the requirements of the staffing schedule”.

25.3.1 Sources of Recruitment

TipInternal vs External sources
Source family Methods
Internal Promotions · Transfers · Internal job posting · Employee referrals (sometimes) · Re-hires · Skills inventory
External Advertising · Campus recruitment · Employment exchanges · Walk-ins · Recruiting agencies · Headhunters · Job portals (Naukri, LinkedIn, Indeed) · Trade unions · Social media · Gate hiring · Contractors / Labour brokers
TipInternal vs External — pros and cons
Dimension Internal External
Cost Lower Higher
Speed Faster Slower
Known quality High Lower; risk
Morale impact Positive — career path Mixed
Fresh perspective Low High
Cultural fit Already fits Uncertain
Knowledge of organisation High Low
Suitability for change/innovation Low High

25.3.2 Models / Philosophies of Recruitment

TipThree philosophies (Schuler)
Philosophy View Practice
Traditional / Numbers-driven More applicants is better Mass advertising, broad nets
Realistic Job Preview (RJP) Give both positives and negatives so applicants self-select John Wanous (1973)
Targeted / Strategic Match recruitment to business strategy Selective hiring (Pfeffer)
NoteRealistic Job Preview (RJP) — John Wanous

RJP (Wanous 1973) deliberately exposes candidates to both positive and negative aspects of the job before they join. RJPs reduce turnover, increase commitment, and improve early performance.

25.4 Selection

Selection is the process of choosing the candidate(s) best suited for a job from the recruited pool. It is a negative process (rejecting unsuitable candidates), contrasted with the positive process of recruitment.

TipTypical seven-step selection process
Step Activity
1 Preliminary screening — application form, resume scan
2 Selection tests — ability, aptitude, personality, interest
3 Selection / employment interview — structured / unstructured / panel
4 Reference and background check
5 Medical examination
6 Final selection and offer
7 Induction / onboarding

25.4.1 Types of Selection Tests

TipMajor selection tests
Type What it measures Example
Intelligence / Cognitive ability General mental ability WAIS, Wonderlic
Aptitude Capacity to learn DAT, GMAT, CAT
Personality Trait profile Big Five, MBTI, 16PF
Interest Vocational preferences Strong Interest Inventory
Achievement / Trade Knowledge already acquired Typing test, coding test
Projective Unconscious motivations TAT, Rorschach
Situational Judgement Test (SJT) Decision-making Scenarios with multiple options
Work-sample / Job-knowledge Direct demonstration Code review, presentation
Assessment Centre Bundle of exercises AT&T 1956 — first AC
Polygraph / Drug test Honesty / substance use Restricted in many jurisdictions

25.4.2 Assessment Centres

Developed at AT&T’s Management Progress Study (1956), an assessment centre uses multiple methods (in-tray, group discussion, role play, presentation, psychometric tests) assessed by multiple trained assessors to make selection or development decisions. The most predictive single selection method in meta-analyses.

25.4.3 Validity of Selection Methods — Schmidt & Hunter (1998)

Meta-analytic average validity coefficients (Schmidt-Hunter 1998 & updates):

TipSelection method validities — top to bottom
Method Validity (r)
Structured interviews 0.51
Cognitive ability (GMA) test 0.51
Job knowledge tests 0.48
Integrity tests 0.46
Work-sample tests 0.44
Assessment centres 0.37
Conscientiousness tests 0.31
Unstructured interviews 0.20
Years of experience 0.18
References 0.13
Graphology / Astrology ~ 0.00

25.4.4 Selection Interviews

TipTypes of selection interviews
  • Structured — standardised questions, scored consistently — most valid.
  • Unstructured — free-flowing — least valid.
  • Patterned — predetermined topics.
  • Panel / Board — multiple interviewers.
  • Stress / Pressure — deliberately uncomfortable.
  • Behavioural Description Interview (BDI) — STAR method (Situation-Task-Action-Result).
  • Situational — hypothetical scenarios.
  • Telephone / Video — initial screening.
  • Depth interview — covers all aspects in detail.

25.4.5 Selection Errors

TipTwo types of selection error
  • Type I — False Positive — selecting an unfit candidate.
  • Type II — False Negative — rejecting a fit candidate.

25.5 Placement and Induction

Placement — assigning the selected candidate to the right job. Induction / Onboarding — socialisation into the organisation (covered in Topic 19 socialisation stages).

TipRobbins’s three stages of socialisation
  • Pre-arrival — anticipations from recruiting.
  • Encounter — reality test on joining.
  • Metamorphosis — internalised values, competent member.

Good induction reduces early turnover and accelerates time-to-productivity. Best practices: buddy system, structured first-90-day plan, exposure across departments, regular check-ins.

25.6 Training and Development

Training is the process of imparting specific skills, abilities and knowledge to do a job. Development is the broader process of improving the overall capability of the individual for current and future roles.

TipTraining vs Development
Dimension Training Development
Audience Operatives, technicians, clerks Managers, executives
Focus Specific skills Conceptual, decision-making
Time horizon Short-term Long-term
Purpose Improve current job performance Prepare for future roles
Initiator Employer-driven Often self-driven
Example Sales training MBA executive programme

25.6.1 The Training Process — Five Stages

TipFive stages of the training process (ADDIE)
# Stage Activity
1 Training Needs Analysis (TNA) Identify gap between current and required performance
2 Designing the training Objectives, content, methods
3 Developing materials Manuals, e-learning, exercises
4 Implementing / Delivering The training session
5 Evaluating Did it work? — Kirkpatrick four levels

The ADDIE model (Analyse · Design · Develop · Implement · Evaluate) is the industry-standard instructional design framework.

25.6.2 Training Needs Analysis — McGehee & Thayer (1961)

McGehee and Thayer’s three-level TNA:

TipThree-level TNA
  • Organisational analysis — where in the organisation is training needed?
  • Task / Operation analysis — what tasks need new skills?
  • Person / Individual analysis — who needs training?

25.6.3 Methods of Training

TipOn-the-Job vs Off-the-Job training
On-the-Job (OJT) Off-the-Job
Job instruction training (JIT) Classroom lecture
Coaching / Mentoring Conference / Seminar
Job rotation Case study
Apprenticeship Role-playing
Internship Behaviour modelling
Understudy / Position substitution Programmed instruction (CBT, e-learning)
Committee assignments Simulation / Vestibule training
Shadowing Outdoor / Adventure training
In-basket exercise · Business games
Sensitivity / T-group training (NTL, Bethel 1947)
MOOCs (Coursera, edX)

25.6.4 Job Instruction Training (JIT) — Four Steps

A US wartime method (1940s): Prepare · Present · Perform · Practice / Follow-up.

25.6.5 Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Training Evaluation (1959)

Donald Kirkpatrick’s four levels are the dominant evaluation framework.

TipKirkpatrick’s four levels
Level Measures Example
1. Reaction Trainee’s response — did they like it? End-of-course feedback form
2. Learning Knowledge / skill acquired Pre-post test
3. Behaviour Transfer to job Manager observations 3-6 months later
4. Results Organisational impact Productivity, sales, quality, ROI

Jack Phillips later added a fifth level — ROI (Return on Investment).

25.6.6 Other Evaluation Models

TipOther training evaluation models
  • CIPP (Stufflebeam 1971) — Context · Input · Process · Product.
  • Hamblin’s five levels (1974) — extends Kirkpatrick.
  • Phillips ROI Methodology (1997) — adds Level 5 ROI.
  • Brinkerhoff Success Case Method.

25.6.7 Executive Development / Management Development

Specialised training for managers. Methods include:

TipManagement development techniques
  • Coaching — one-on-one development by senior leader.
  • Mentoring — long-term relationship-based development.
  • Job rotation — broaden exposure.
  • Action learning — Reg Revans 1940s — learn by tackling real problems.
  • In-basket exercise — simulated managerial decisions.
  • Management games / Business simulations.
  • Case study method — Harvard Business School template.
  • Sensitivity training (T-groups) — NTL Institute, 1947.
  • University executive programmes — IIMs, ISB, Harvard, Wharton.
  • Conferences and seminars.
  • Outward Bound / Outdoor leadership programmes.

25.6.8 Career Planning — Donald Super’s Stages

Donald Super (1957) identified five career stages:

TipSuper’s five career stages
Stage Age Theme
Growth 0–14 Self-concept developing
Exploration 15–24 Trying out careers
Establishment 25–44 Settling in chosen field
Maintenance 45–64 Holding on to gains
Decline 65+ Disengagement, retirement

25.6.9 Learning Theories Relevant to Training

TipLearning principles for training
  • Reinforcement (Skinner) — reward right responses.
  • Practice — distributed > massed; whole > part (for high task organisation).
  • Feedback / Knowledge of results — immediate and specific.
  • Goal-setting (Locke) — specific, challenging goals.
  • Self-efficacy (Bandura) — confidence to perform.
  • Transfer of learning — similarity of training to job context aids transfer.
  • 70-20-10 model (Lombardo-Eichinger, 1996) — 70 % on-job · 20 % from others · 10 % formal training.

25.7 Indian Training Institutions

TipMajor Indian training and development institutions
  • ATI — Administrative Training Institutes (state level).
  • LBSNAA — Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration, Mussoorie.
  • NIBM — National Institute of Bank Management, Pune.
  • ASCI — Administrative Staff College of India, Hyderabad (1956).
  • IIM-A Faculty Development Centre, IIM-B, IIM-C — public-policy and management training.
  • NHRDN — National HRD Network.
  • SHRM India — Society for Human Resource Management.
  • CIPD India — Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.
  • NIPM — National Institute of Personnel Management (1959, Kolkata).
  • National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC, 2009) — implements Skill India Mission.
NoteSkill India and NSDC

Skill India Mission (2015) targets training 400 million people in employable skills by 2022 (later extended). The National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) under the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship runs Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) — flagship skill-training scheme. National Skills Qualification Framework (NSQF, 2013) — 10-level competency-based framework.

25.8 Practice Questions

Q 01 HRP Easy

Human Resource Planning aims at ensuring:

  • AMaximum employees possible
  • BRight number and kind of people at the right time and place
  • COnly internal candidates are hired
  • DSenior employees are retained at all costs
View solution
Correct Option: B
HRP = right number + right kind + right time + right place. Vetter's four "rights".
Q 02 Hard vs Soft HRP Medium

"Soft" HRP differs from "Hard" HRP in that it emphasises:

  • AMathematical demand forecasting
  • BCultural and behavioural integration alongside quantitative supply-demand matching
  • CTime-and-motion studies
  • DMarkov chains
View solution
Correct Option: B
Soft HRP integrates values, culture, behaviours, employee voice. Hard HRP is the quantitative supply-demand match.
Q 03 JD vs JS Easy

Job Description and Job Specification differ in that:

  • AJD lists duties; JS lists qualifications required
  • BJD lists qualifications; JS lists duties
  • CJD is for managers; JS is for workers
  • DThey are interchangeable
View solution
Correct Option: A
JD = duties, responsibilities, reporting. JS = qualifications, skills, experience required.
Q 04 JA techniques Medium

The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) for job analysis was developed by:

  • AFlanagan
  • BMcCormick
  • CKirkpatrick
  • DHackman
View solution
Correct Option: B
Ernest McCormick's PAQ (1972) — 194 job elements. Flanagan developed the Critical Incident Technique (1954).
Q 05 Recruitment Easy

Recruitment is described as a *positive* process and selection as a *negative* process because:

  • ARecruitment is friendly; selection is hostile
  • BRecruitment *attracts* candidates; selection *rejects* unsuitable ones
  • CRecruitment is paid; selection is free
  • DRecruitment is voluntary; selection is mandatory
View solution
Correct Option: B
Recruitment is *positive* (attract); selection is *negative* (reject unsuitable from the recruited pool).
Q 06 RJP Medium

The concept of *Realistic Job Preview* (RJP) — telling candidates both the positives *and* negatives of a job — was developed by:

  • AJohn Wanous
  • BJohn Holland
  • CDonald Super
  • DGary Dessler
View solution
Correct Option: A
John Wanous (1973) — RJP reduces turnover by enabling self-selection.
Q 07 Selection errors Medium

Selecting an unfit candidate is a:

  • AType I (False Positive) error
  • BType II (False Negative) error
  • CSelection paradox
  • DAdverse impact
View solution
Correct Option: A
Type I — False Positive: hired an unfit candidate. Type II — False Negative: rejected a fit candidate.
Q 08 AC Medium

The first business assessment centre was set up in 1956 at:

  • AIBM
  • BAT&T (Management Progress Study)
  • CGeneral Electric
  • DFord Motor Company
View solution
Correct Option: B
AT&T's Management Progress Study (1956) — Douglas Bray pioneered the first business assessment centre.
Q 09 Selection validity Hard

According to Schmidt-Hunter meta-analyses, which of the following has the *highest* predictive validity for job performance?

  • AYears of experience
  • BReferences
  • CStructured interviews and cognitive ability tests
  • DGraphology
View solution
Correct Option: C
Structured interviews (~0.51) and cognitive ability / GMA tests (~0.51) have the highest validity. Graphology is near zero.
Q 10 STAR Medium

The STAR method in behavioural interviewing stands for:

  • ASituation · Task · Action · Result
  • BStrength · Talent · Achievement · Reward
  • CSkill · Training · Aptitude · Reference
  • DSpecific · Targeted · Actual · Real
View solution
Correct Option: A
Situation · Task · Action · Result — used in behavioural-description interviewing.
Q 11 Critical incident Medium

The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) for job analysis was developed by:

  • AJohn Flanagan (1954)
  • BErnest McCormick
  • CFrederick Herzberg
  • DDonald Kirkpatrick
View solution
Correct Option: A
John C. Flanagan (1954) developed CIT during WWII for the US Army Air Forces.
Q 12 TND Medium

McGehee and Thayer's three-level TNA framework includes Organisational, Task and:

  • AStrategic
  • BPerson / Individual analysis
  • CCompetitive
  • DDepartmental
View solution
Correct Option: B
McGehee & Thayer (1961): Organisational · Task · Person analysis.
Q 13 Kirkpatrick Medium

Kirkpatrick's four levels of training evaluation are:

  • AReaction · Learning · Behaviour · Results
  • BAwareness · Desire · Knowledge · Ability
  • CPlan · Do · Check · Act
  • DContext · Input · Process · Product
View solution
Correct Option: A
Donald Kirkpatrick (1959): Reaction · Learning · Behaviour · Results. Phillips added Level 5 = ROI.
Q 14 ADDIE Easy

The ADDIE model of instructional design stands for:

  • AAnalyse · Design · Develop · Implement · Evaluate
  • BAwareness · Desire · Discipline · Initiative · Engagement
  • CAssess · Define · Design · Implement · Evaluate
  • DAim · Develop · Direct · Inspire · Excel
View solution
Correct Option: A
ADDIE: Analyse → Design → Develop → Implement → Evaluate.
Q 15 70-20-10 Medium

The 70-20-10 learning model (Lombardo-Eichinger 1996) suggests learning comes from:

  • A70 % formal training, 20 % from others, 10 % on-the-job
  • B70 % on-the-job, 20 % from others, 10 % formal training
  • C70 % e-learning, 20 % coaching, 10 % conferences
  • D70 % theory, 20 % practice, 10 % evaluation
View solution
Correct Option: B
70-20-10 (Lombardo & Eichinger, *Career Architect*, 1996): 70 % on-job experience · 20 % learning from others · 10 % formal training.
Q 16 Action learning Hard

"Action learning" — learning by tackling real organisational problems — was developed in the 1940s by:

  • ADonald Kirkpatrick
  • BReg Revans
  • CDavid Kolb
  • DPeter Senge
View solution
Correct Option: B
Reg Revans (1940s, British coal-mining) — Action Learning: L = P + Q (Programmed knowledge + Questioning insight).
Q 17 Super Hard

Donald Super's career-stage model has how many stages?

  • A3
  • B4
  • C5
  • D7
View solution
Correct Option: C
Super's five stages: Growth · Exploration · Establishment · Maintenance · Decline.
Q 18 OJT Easy

Which is *not* an on-the-job training method?

  • AJob rotation
  • BApprenticeship
  • CClassroom lecture
  • DCoaching
View solution
Correct Option: C
Classroom lecture is off-the-job. OJT methods include job rotation, apprenticeship, coaching, mentoring, internship, JIT, understudy, shadowing.
Q 19 NSDC Medium

India's National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) was set up in:

  • A1995
  • B2009
  • C2015
  • D2020
View solution
Correct Option: B
NSDC was set up in 2009 as a PPP. It implements PMKVY (launched 2015) under the Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship (MSDE).
Q 20 Match concepts Hard

Match the concept with its author:

(i) Critical Incident Technique (a) Kirkpatrick
(ii) 4 levels of training evaluation (b) McGehee & Thayer
(iii) 3-level TNA (c) Reg Revans
(iv) Action Learning (d) Flanagan
  • A(i)-(d), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(c)
  • B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d)
  • C(i)-(b), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(d), (iv)-(a)
  • D(i)-(c), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(b)
View solution
Correct Option: A
CIT — Flanagan; 4 levels — Kirkpatrick; 3-level TNA — McGehee & Thayer; Action Learning — Reg Revans.

25.8.1 Advanced Format Questions

AR 1Assertion-ReasonHard

A: Kirkpatrick's 4 levels evaluate training.
R: Levels are Reaction, Learning, Behaviour, Results.

  • ABoth true; R explains A
  • BBoth true; R does not explain A
  • CA true, R false
  • DA false, R true
View solution
Correct Option: A
AR 2Assertion-ReasonMedium

A: Job analysis precedes recruitment.
R: JD and JS are outputs of job analysis.

  • ABoth true; R explains A
  • BBoth true; R does not explain A
  • CA true, R false
  • DA false, R true
View solution
Correct Option: A
S 1Statement-basedMedium

On-the-job methods: (i) Coaching. (ii) Mentoring. (iii) Job rotation. (iv) Vestibule training.

  • A(i), (ii), (iii) only
  • BAll four
  • C(iv) only
  • D(i) and (iv) only
View solution
Correct Option: A
Vestibule is off-the-job.
S 2Statement-basedHard

Selection tests: (i) Aptitude. (ii) Personality. (iii) Achievement. (iv) Interest.

  • AAll four
  • B(i) and (ii) only
  • C(iii) and (iv) only
  • D(i), (ii), (iii) only
View solution
Correct Option: A

25.9 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • HRP = right number + right kind + right time + right place. 6 steps: Objectives → Demand → Supply → Gap → Action → Monitor.
  • Hard HRP (quantitative) vs Soft HRP (qualitative).
  • Forecasting: Qualitative (judgement, Delphi, NGT) · Time-series · Ratio · Work-study · Skills inventory · Markov.
  • Job Analysis → JD (duties) + JS (qualifications). Methods: Observation · Interview · Questionnaire (PAQ — McCormick 1972) · Diary · Critical Incident (Flanagan 1954) · Performance · Conference.
  • Recruitment = positive (attract); Selection = negative (reject). Internal vs External sources.
  • Realistic Job Preview (Wanous 1973) reduces turnover.
  • Selection process — 7 steps: Preliminary screen → Tests → Interview → References → Medical → Offer → Induction.
  • Tests: Intelligence · Aptitude · Personality · Interest · Achievement · Projective · SJT · Work-sample · Assessment Centre (AT&T 1956, Douglas Bray).
  • Schmidt-Hunter validity ranks: structured interview (~0.51) ≈ GMA (~0.51) > work sample > AC > unstructured interview > experience > references > graphology.
  • Interview types: Structured · Unstructured · Patterned · Panel · Stress · BDI (STAR — Situation/Task/Action/Result) · Situational.
  • Selection errors: Type I (False Positive — hired unfit) · Type II (False Negative — rejected fit).
  • Induction — 3-stage socialisation (Pre-arrival/Encounter/Metamorphosis).
  • Training vs Development — short skills vs long capability. ADDIE model (Analyse-Design-Develop-Implement-Evaluate). TNA — McGehee & Thayer 1961 3 levels (Organisational · Task · Person).
  • OJT (rotation, coaching, apprenticeship, JIT 4-step) vs Off-JT (lecture, case, role-play, in-basket, simulation, T-group/sensitivity NTL 1947).
  • Kirkpatrick 4 levels (1959): Reaction · Learning · Behaviour · Results. Phillips ROI Level 5. CIPP (Stufflebeam 1971).
  • 70-20-10 (Lombardo-Eichinger 1996) — 70 % on-job · 20 % others · 10 % formal.
  • Action Learning — Reg Revans (1940s) — L = P + Q.
  • Super’s 5 career stages: Growth · Exploration · Establishment · Maintenance · Decline.
  • India: NIPM (1959 Kolkata) · ASCI (1956 Hyderabad) · LBSNAA Mussoorie · NSDC 2009 · PMKVY · NSQF (2013, 10 levels) · Skill India 2015.