31 Organisation Development and Change

31.1 What is Organisation Development?

Organisation Development (OD) is a planned, systemic, long-range effort to improve an organisation’s effectiveness and health through interventions in its processes, using behavioural-science knowledge. The discipline grew out of the human-relations movement, the T-group work of Kurt Lewin and the National Training Laboratories (NTL) at Bethel, Maine in the 1940s and 50s.

Working Definitions of OD

Author	Definition
Richard Beckhard (1969)	“A planned, organisation-wide effort, managed from the top, to increase organisation effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organisation’s processes, using behavioural-science knowledge.”
Warren Bennis	“A response to change; a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values and structure of organisations so they can better adapt to new technologies, markets and challenges.”
Wendell French & Cecil Bell	“A long-range effort to improve an organisation’s problem-solving and renewal processes, particularly through a more effective and collaborative management of organisation culture, with the assistance of a change agent.”
Edgar Schein	“Process consultation — the set of activities by which the consultant helps the client perceive, understand and act upon the process events that occur in the client’s environment.”
Cummings & Worley	“A system-wide application and transfer of behavioural-science knowledge to the planned development, improvement and reinforcement of strategies, structures and processes that lead to organisation effectiveness.”

31.1.1 Beckhard’s Five Characteristics of OD

Beckhard (1969) — five defining features of OD

Planned — not accidental.
Organisation-wide — system-level, not local.
Top-managed — sponsorship from the top.
Effectiveness + Health — both outcomes and processes.
Behavioural-science based — uses theory and research, not folk wisdom.

31.2 Foundations — Lewin, NTL, Tavistock

Three foundational streams of OD

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) — father of OD; T-groups, action research, Force Field Analysis, three-stage change model.
National Training Laboratories (NTL) — founded 1947 at Bethel, Maine — institutionalised T-groups and sensitivity training.
Tavistock Institute (London, 1947) — socio-technical systems theory (Trist and Bamforth’s coal-mine study).

31.3 Lewin’s Three-Stage Change Model

Kurt Lewin’s “Frontiers in Group Dynamics” (1947) gave the classic three-stage model of planned change:

Lewin’s three stages

Stage	What happens
Unfreezing	Disconfirm the status quo; create motivation and readiness; reduce resistance
Changing / Moving	Introduce new behaviours, values, attitudes; build new competencies
Refreezing	Stabilise — reinforce, institutionalise and integrate the new state

flowchart LR
  U[Unfreeze<br/>break old habits] --> C[Change<br/>introduce new ways]
  C --> R[Refreeze<br/>stabilise]
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

31.3.1 Force Field Analysis (Lewin 1947)

A diagnostic tool that maps driving forces (pushing for change) against restraining forces (resisting change). Change occurs when drivers exceed restrainers — and Lewin argued reducing restrainers is more effective than amplifying drivers.

31.4 Action Research

Kurt Lewin (1946) coined action research — a cyclical process of diagnosis → action → evaluation → diagnosis. French and Bell expanded it for OD into an eight-stage model.

French-Bell action-research model

Problem identification
Consultation with a behavioural-science expert
Data gathering and preliminary diagnosis
Feedback to the client
Joint diagnosis of the problem
Joint action planning
Action
Data gathering after action (evaluation)

31.5 Other Change Models

31.5.2 Kotter’s Eight-Step Change Model (1996)

John Kotter, Leading Change (1996), surveyed 100 + transformation efforts and gave eight sequential steps:

Kotter’s 8 steps

#	Step	Purpose
1	Establish a sense of urgency	Confront complacency
2	Form a guiding coalition	Build power to lead
3	Develop a vision and strategy	Direction
4	Communicate the change vision	Mass buy-in
5	Empower broad-based action	Remove obstacles
6	Generate short-term wins	Build momentum
7	Consolidate gains and produce more change	Don’t declare victory too soon
8	Anchor new approaches in the culture	Make it stick

31.5.3 ADKAR — Prosci (Jeff Hiatt, 2003)

Individual-level change model — change in an organisation happens when individuals change. Five sequential elements:

ADKAR

Awareness of the need to change
Desire to participate and support change
Knowledge of how to change
Ability to implement the change
Reinforcement to sustain change

31.5.4 McKinsey 7S Framework (Peters-Waterman-Pascale-Athos, 1980)

Seven interdependent variables that must align for effective change — 3 Hard + 4 Soft:

McKinsey 7S

Type	Element
Hard	Strategy · Structure · Systems
Soft	Shared values (centre) · Skills · Style · Staff

31.5.5 Burke-Litwin Model (1992)

12 organisational variables in causal chains, distinguishing transformational factors (external environment, mission/strategy, leadership, culture) from transactional factors (structure, systems, management practices, climate, motivation).

31.5.6 Bridges’ Transition Model (1991)

William Bridges distinguished change (external, situational) from transition (internal, psychological). Three phases of transition:

Bridges’ three phases

Ending, Losing, Letting Go — first.
The Neutral Zone — middle.
The New Beginning — last.

31.5.7 Greiner’s Five-Stage Growth Model (1972, updated 1998)

Larry Greiner — organisations grow through five (later six) evolutionary stages, each ending in a crisis that triggers revolution:

Greiner’s growth-and-crisis stages

Phase	Growth through	Crisis
1	Creativity	Leadership
2	Direction	Autonomy
3	Delegation	Control
4	Coordination	Red tape
5	Collaboration	Internal growth
6 (1998)	Alliances	Identity

31.5.8 Nadler-Tushman Congruence Model (1980)

David Nadler-Michael Tushman — organisation as a system; effective performance follows when strategy, work, people, structure and culture are congruent with each other and the environment.

31.5.9 Senge’s Learning Organisation (1990)

Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline (1990) — a learning organisation masters five disciplines:

Senge’s five disciplines

Personal mastery — individual learning.
Mental models — surface assumptions.
Shared vision — collective aspiration.
Team learning — dialogue and skilful discussion.
Systems thinking ★ — the fifth discipline that integrates the rest.

31.6 OD Interventions

OD interventions are the planned activities through which change is introduced. Cummings and Worley classify them into four families:

Cummings-Worley four families of OD interventions

Family	Examples
Human Process	T-groups, team building, process consultation, third-party peacemaking, survey feedback, organisation confrontation meeting
Technostructural	Job redesign, work design, structural design (functional/divisional/matrix), parallel learning structures, employee involvement, TQM
Human Resource Management	Goal setting, performance management, reward systems, career planning, talent management, diversity
Strategic Change	Integrated strategic change, mergers & acquisitions, alliances, culture change, self-designing organisations

31.6.1 Six Classic Human-Process Interventions

Six widely-tested human-process interventions

T-Group / Sensitivity Training — small unstructured group; experiential learning about self-and-others; Lewin/NTL origin.
Team Building — clarify roles, goals, relationships, processes.
Process Consultation — Schein’s approach; consultant helps client see and act on processes.
Third-Party Peacemaking / Conflict Resolution — neutral facilitator helps two parties work out conflict.
Survey Feedback — collect data, feed it back, jointly plan action.
Organisation Confrontation Meeting — full-organisation off-site, surface and act on key issues (Beckhard).

31.6.2 Other Important Interventions

Other OD interventions

Intervention	Originator / What it does
Managerial Grid (Grid OD)	Blake & Mouton (1964) — six-phase grid programme
Quality of Work Life (QWL)	Walton (1973) — humanise jobs and work environment
Quality Circles	Ishikawa (Japan, 1960s) — small problem-solving groups
TQM	Deming, Juran, Crosby — quality as everyone’s job
Re-engineering / BPR	Hammer & Champy (1993) — radical process redesign
Appreciative Inquiry	Cooperrider & Srivastva (1987) — focus on what works
Open Space Technology	Harrison Owen (1985) — large-group self-organising meeting
World Café	Brown & Isaacs (1995) — conversational large-group
Future Search	Weisbord (1992) — design the future
Whole Scale Change	Dannemiller (1990s) — large-group transformation
Six Sigma	Motorola/GE — defect reduction, DMAIC
Lean / Kaizen	Toyota — continuous improvement

PYQ cue — Appreciative Inquiry

Appreciative Inquiry (AI) by David Cooperrider and Suresh Srivastva (1987) reverses problem-focused diagnosis with the 4-D cycle — Discover, Dream, Design, Destiny — built around what gives life to the organisation.

31.7 Resistance to Change

31.7.1 Sources of Resistance

Kotter & Schlesinger — four reasons people resist change (1979)

Parochial self-interest — fear of losing something of value.
Misunderstanding and lack of trust — don’t understand or trust the change leaders.
Different assessments — believe the change is a bad idea.
Low tolerance for change — psychological/emotional discomfort with disruption.

31.7.2 Six Strategies for Overcoming Resistance (Kotter-Schlesinger)

Kotter-Schlesinger six strategies

Strategy	When to use
Education + Communication	Lack of information
Participation + Involvement	Resistors have power
Facilitation + Support	Fear and anxiety
Negotiation + Agreement	Someone loses, has power
Manipulation + Co-optation	Other tactics too costly (controversial)
Explicit + Implicit Coercion	Speed is essential; leader has power (last resort)

31.8 The OD Practitioner / Change Agent

Roles of an OD practitioner (Lippitt):

Roles of the OD practitioner / change agent

Expert — provides answers.
Facilitator — helps the client find answers.
Coach — develops client capability.
Trainer / Educator — transfers knowledge.
Process Consultant — Schein’s model.
Reflector — mirrors back to client.
Researcher — gathers data systematically.
Diagnostician — frames problems.

Internal vs External change agents — internal know the culture and politics; external bring objectivity and specialised expertise. Often used in combination.

31.9 Types of Change

Five common change typologies

Pair	Distinction
Planned vs Emergent	Anticipated and managed vs unfolding
Incremental vs Radical	Continuous improvement (kaizen) vs transformational
Strategic vs Operational	Direction vs execution
Reactive vs Proactive	Response to crisis vs ahead of need
First-order vs Second-order	Within-paradigm (improve) vs paradigm-shift (transform)

31.10 OD in India

OD entered India in the 1960s through the Indian Society for Applied Behavioural Science (ISABS) (1971) and the work of Udai Pareek, TV Rao, K Aiyappan Pillai, Ravi Matthai and Larsen & Toubro’s pioneering OD work in the 1970s.

Udai Pareek and TV Rao developed the integrated HRD philosophy at L&T and later at IIM-Ahmedabad — coining the term HRD in the Indian context (1975). Their Pareek-Rao OCTAPACE culture (Openness, Confrontation, Trust, Autonomy, Pro-activity, Authenticity, Collaboration, Experimentation) is widely tested.

31.11 Modern Trends in Change Management

Twelve modern change-management trends

Agile change management — iterative, sprint-based.
Digital transformation — change anchored in technology.
Continuous change / agility — change as a steady state.
Design thinking in OD interventions.
Behavioural-economics nudges (Thaler-Sunstein).
Network-of-teams (McChrystal Team of Teams).
OKR-driven change cadence.
People analytics for change readiness.
Psychological safety as enabler (Edmondson).
Hybrid-work culture change.
DEI-led culture change.
ESG-driven transformation.

31.12 Practice Questions

Q 01 Lewin Easy

The "Unfreeze → Change → Refreeze" model of planned change was proposed by:

AKurt Lewin
BJohn Kotter
CEdgar Schein
DRichard Beckhard

View solution

Correct Option: A

Kurt Lewin (1947). Father of OD.

Q 02 Beckhard Medium

"A planned, organisation-wide effort, managed from the top..." is Beckhard's definition of:

AHRM
BOrganisation Development
CTQM
DStrategic Planning

View solution

Correct Option: B

Richard Beckhard (1969) — classic OD definition.

Q 03 Kotter Medium

John Kotter's eight-step change model begins with:

ACreating a vision
BEstablishing a sense of urgency
CAnchoring change in culture
DGenerating short-term wins

View solution

Correct Option: B

Kotter's step 1 — Establish a sense of urgency. *Leading Change* (1996).

Q 04 Force Field Medium

"Force Field Analysis" — mapping driving and restraining forces — was developed by:

ALewin
BBennis
CSchein
DTushman

View solution

Correct Option: A

Kurt Lewin — 1947.

Q 05 ADKAR Medium

ADKAR — Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, Reinforcement — is a change model from:

AMcKinsey
BProsci (Jeff Hiatt)
CBCG
DDeloitte

View solution

Correct Option: B

Jeff Hiatt at Prosci — 2003.

Q 06 7S Medium

In the McKinsey 7S framework, the centre is:

AStrategy
BStructure
CShared values
DSkills

View solution

Correct Option: C

Shared Values sit at the centre, linking the 3 Hard + 4 Soft Ss.

Q 07 Senge Medium

Peter Senge's "fifth discipline" is:

APersonal mastery
BShared vision
CTeam learning
DSystems thinking

View solution

Correct Option: D

Systems thinking — the integrator of the other four. *The Fifth Discipline* (1990).

Q 08 Greiner Hard

In Larry Greiner's growth model, Phase 1 (Creativity) ends in a crisis of:

AAutonomy
BLeadership
CControl
DRed tape

View solution

Correct Option: B

Phase 1 (Creativity) → Crisis of Leadership. Greiner (1972, updated 1998).

Q 09 Action Research Medium

The term "action research" was coined in 1946 by:

ALewin
BArgyris
CFrench
DBell

View solution

Correct Option: A

Kurt Lewin (1946). French and Bell expanded it.

Q 10 Appreciative Inquiry Hard

Appreciative Inquiry's 4-D cycle is:

ADiagnose, Design, Develop, Deploy
BDiscover, Dream, Design, Destiny
CDefine, Direct, Drive, Deliver
DDiscuss, Decide, Do, Document

View solution

Correct Option: B

Discover · Dream · Design · Destiny — Cooperrider & Srivastva (1987).

Q 11 Process Consultation Medium

"Process Consultation" as an OD intervention is associated with:

ALewin
BSchein
CArgyris
DBennis

View solution

Correct Option: B

Edgar Schein — *Process Consultation* (1969).

Q 12 Grid OD Medium

Managerial Grid (Grid OD) was given by:

ABlake & Mouton
BHersey & Blanchard
CFiedler & House
DVroom & Yetton

View solution

Correct Option: A

Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1964). 9×9 grid.

Q 13 Bridges Hard

William Bridges distinguishes change from transition. The middle phase of his transition model is called:

AUnfreezing
BNeutral Zone
CRefreezing
DPlateau

View solution

Correct Option: B

Bridges: Ending → Neutral Zone → New Beginning.

Q 14 Kotter-Schlesinger Hard

Kotter & Schlesinger's strategies for overcoming resistance to change include all EXCEPT:

AEducation & Communication
BParticipation & Involvement
CStrategic ambiguity
DNegotiation & Agreement

View solution

Correct Option: C

Six strategies: Education · Participation · Facilitation · Negotiation · Manipulation · Coercion. "Strategic ambiguity" is not one.

Q 15 OCTAPACE Hard

OCTAPACE — a model of HRD culture — was developed by:

APareek & Rao
BBeer & Spector
CGuest & Storey
DUlrich

View solution

Correct Option: A

Udai Pareek and TV Rao — OCTAPACE = Openness, Confrontation, Trust, Autonomy, Pro-activity, Authenticity, Collaboration, Experimentation.

Q 16 Burke-Litwin Hard

The Burke-Litwin model of change distinguishes:

AStrategic and operational factors
BTransformational and transactional factors
CHard and soft factors
DInternal and external factors

View solution

Correct Option: B

Burke-Litwin (1992) distinguishes transformational (mission, leadership, culture) from transactional (structure, systems, climate).

Q 17 BPR Medium

Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) — radical redesign of processes — was popularised in 1993 by:

AHammer & Champy
BPeters & Waterman
CDeming & Juran
DKaplan & Norton

View solution

Correct Option: A

Michael Hammer and James Champy, *Reengineering the Corporation* (1993).

Q 18 T-Group Medium

The T-Group (sensitivity training) intervention was institutionalised in 1947 at:

ANTL, Bethel, Maine
BTavistock, London
CHawthorne, Chicago
DHarvard Business School

View solution

Correct Option: A

National Training Laboratories (NTL), Bethel, Maine — 1947.

Q 19 Cummings-Worley Hard

Cummings & Worley's four families of OD interventions are Human Process, Technostructural, HRM and:

AStrategic Change
BFinancial Change
CMarketing Change
DCultural Change

View solution

Correct Option: A

Four families: Human Process · Technostructural · HRM · Strategic Change.

Q 20 Match concepts Hard

Match the model with its author:

(i)	Three-Stage Change	(a)	Senge
(ii)	Eight-Step Change	(b)	Kotter
(iii)	Fifth Discipline	(c)	Lewin
(iv)	4-D Appreciative Inquiry	(d)	Cooperrider

A(i)-(c), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(d)
B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d)
C(i)-(b), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(d), (iv)-(a)
D(i)-(d), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(c)

View solution

Correct Option: A

3-stage — Lewin; 8-step — Kotter; Fifth Discipline — Senge; 4-D AI — Cooperrider.

31.12.1 Advanced Format Questions

AR 1Assertion-ReasonHard

A: Lewin's force-field analysis identifies driving and restraining forces.
R: To produce change, driving forces must exceed restraining forces.

ABoth true; R explains A
BBoth true; R does not explain A
CA true, R false
DA false, R true

View solution

Correct Option: A

AR 2Assertion-ReasonMedium

A: Kotter's 8-step model emphasises urgency first.
R: Without urgency change initiatives stall.

ABoth true; R explains A
BBoth true; R does not explain A
CA true, R false
DA false, R true

View solution

Correct Option: A

S 1Statement-basedMedium

OD interventions: (i) Team building. (ii) Survey feedback. (iii) Sensitivity training (T-group). (iv) Process consultation.

AAll four
B(i) and (ii) only
C(iii) and (iv) only
D(i), (ii), (iii) only

View solution

Correct Option: A

S 2Statement-basedHard

Change models: (i) Lewin 3-step. (ii) Kotter 8-step. (iii) ADKAR. (iv) Bridges Transition.

AAll four
B(i) and (ii) only
C(iii) and (iv) only
D(i), (ii), (iii) only

View solution

Correct Option: A

31.13 Quick Recall

Quick recall

OD = planned, organisation-wide, top-managed, behavioural-science-based effort for effectiveness + health (Beckhard 1969).
Foundations: Kurt Lewin (T-groups, action research, Force Field) · NTL Bethel (1947) · Tavistock (1947).
Lewin’s 3 stages: Unfreeze → Change → Refreeze.
Force Field Analysis — drivers vs restrainers; reduce restrainers.
Action Research — Lewin (1946); French-Bell 8 stages.
Schein — psychological mechanisms; Process Consultation.
Kotter (1996) — 8 steps: Urgency · Coalition · Vision · Communicate · Empower · Short-term wins · Consolidate · Anchor.
ADKAR — Prosci/Hiatt (2003): Awareness · Desire · Knowledge · Ability · Reinforcement.
McKinsey 7S (1980) — 3 Hard (Strategy/Structure/Systems) + 4 Soft (Shared values · Skills · Style · Staff).
Burke-Litwin (1992) — transformational vs transactional factors.
Bridges (1991) — change vs transition; Ending → Neutral Zone → New Beginning.
Greiner (1972) — 5+1 growth stages with crises (Leadership · Autonomy · Control · Red tape · Internal · Identity).
Nadler-Tushman Congruence model.
Senge (1990) — Five Disciplines: Personal Mastery · Mental Models · Shared Vision · Team Learning · Systems Thinking ★.
Cummings-Worley 4 families: Human Process · Technostructural · HRM · Strategic Change.
Human-process interventions: T-Group · Team Building · Process Consultation · Third-Party Peacemaking · Survey Feedback · Confrontation Meeting.
Other: Grid OD (Blake-Mouton) · QWL (Walton) · QC (Ishikawa) · TQM · BPR (Hammer-Champy 1993) · Appreciative Inquiry 4-D (Cooperrider 1987) · Open Space · World Café · Future Search · Six Sigma · Lean/Kaizen.
Resistance — Kotter-Schlesinger (1979): 4 reasons; 6 strategies (Education · Participation · Facilitation · Negotiation · Manipulation · Coercion).
India: ISABS 1971 · Pareek-Rao HRD philosophy · OCTAPACE (Openness, Confrontation, Trust, Autonomy, Pro-activity, Authenticity, Collaboration, Experimentation).
Modern trends: Agile change · Digital transformation · Network-of-teams · Design thinking · Behavioural nudges · People analytics · Psychological safety · DEI + ESG culture change.

31.1 What is Organisation Development?

31.1.1 Beckhard’s Five Characteristics of OD

31.2 Foundations — Lewin, NTL, Tavistock

31.3 Lewin’s Three-Stage Change Model

31.3.1 Force Field Analysis (Lewin 1947)

31.4 Action Research

31.5 Other Change Models

31.5.1 Schein’s Refinement of Lewin

31.5.2 Kotter’s Eight-Step Change Model (1996)

31.5.3 ADKAR — Prosci (Jeff Hiatt, 2003)

31.5.4 McKinsey 7S Framework (Peters-Waterman-Pascale-Athos, 1980)

31.5.5 Burke-Litwin Model (1992)

31.5.6 Bridges’ Transition Model (1991)

31.5.7 Greiner’s Five-Stage Growth Model (1972, updated 1998)

31.5.8 Nadler-Tushman Congruence Model (1980)

31.5.9 Senge’s Learning Organisation (1990)

31.6 OD Interventions

31.6.1 Six Classic Human-Process Interventions

31.6.2 Other Important Interventions

31.7 Resistance to Change

31.7.1 Sources of Resistance

31.7.2 Six Strategies for Overcoming Resistance (Kotter-Schlesinger)

31.8 The OD Practitioner / Change Agent

31.9 Types of Change

31.10 OD in India

31.11 Modern Trends in Change Management

31.12 Practice Questions

31.12.1 Advanced Format Questions

31.13 Quick Recall