flowchart LR
S[Stimuli] --> AT[Selective<br/>attention]
AT --> OR[Organisation<br/>figure-ground · grouping]
OR --> IN[Interpretation<br/>meaning-making]
IN --> RES[Response /<br/>Behaviour]
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17 Individual Behaviour — Personality, Perception, Values, Attitudes, Learning, Motivation
17.1 Foundations of Individual Behaviour
Individual behaviour is the most fundamental level of organisational behaviour — every group decision, every team conflict, every cultural norm is ultimately mediated through individuals. Robbins’s framework lists four foundations — personality, perception, attitudes, and learning — to which the literature adds values and motivation.
TipSix building blocks of individual behaviour
| Block | What it asks |
|---|---|
| Personality | What stable traits does the person bring? |
| Perception | How does the person see the world? |
| Attitudes | What evaluative stances does the person hold? |
| Values | What does the person believe is right or important? |
| Learning | How does behaviour change with experience? |
| Motivation | What energises and directs behaviour? |
TipDeterminants of individual behaviour
| Group | Examples |
|---|---|
| Biographical / Personal | Age, gender, marital status, tenure, education |
| Psychological | Personality, perception, attitudes, learning, motivation |
| Environmental | Family, peers, society, organisation, technology |
| Organisational | Policy, structure, leadership, reward system, culture |
17.2 Personality
Personality is the enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that distinguishes one person from another. Gordon Allport’s classic 1937 definition: “the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment”.
TipThree working definitions
- Gordon Allport (1937) — dynamic psycho-physical organisation.
- Stephen Robbins — “the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others”.
- Salvatore Maddi — “a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences in psychological behaviour”.
17.2.1 Determinants of personality
TipThree families of determinants
- Heredity / Biological — genes, neuro-physiology, temperament.
- Environment / Cultural — family, society, culture, formative experiences.
- Situational — context-specific moderators (the same person behaves differently in church and in a stadium).
17.2.2 The Big Five (OCEAN / CANOE)
The dominant trait model. Developed across decades by Tupes & Christal (1961), Lewis Goldberg (1990), McCrae & Costa (NEO-PI).
TipBig Five — OCEAN
| Trait | High score | Low score | Job-relevant |
|---|---|---|---|
| O — Openness to experience | Imaginative, curious, broad-minded | Conventional, narrow | Learning, innovation |
| C — Conscientiousness | Organised, dependable, persistent | Disorganised, careless | Strongest predictor of job performance |
| E — Extraversion | Outgoing, sociable, assertive | Reserved, quiet | Sales, leadership |
| A — Agreeableness | Trusting, cooperative, kind | Competitive, antagonistic | Teamwork, service |
| N — Neuroticism (also called Emotional Stability when reversed) | Anxious, moody, insecure | Calm, confident, secure | Stress jobs |
NoteJob-performance pyramid
Across studies, Conscientiousness is the strongest and most universal predictor of job performance — irrespective of occupation. Emotional Stability (low N) predicts well-being and job satisfaction.
17.2.3 Other Trait Models
TipOther trait taxonomies
| Model | Author | Number | Idea |
|---|---|---|---|
| 16 Personality Factor (16PF) | Raymond Cattell | 16 | Statistical reduction (factor analysis) of 4 504 trait names |
| Eysenck’s PEN | Hans Eysenck | 3 | Psychoticism · Extraversion · Neuroticism |
| Three Allport traits | Gordon Allport | — | Cardinal · Central · Secondary |
| HEXACO | Ashton-Lee | 6 | Big Five + Honesty-Humility |
| Dark Triad | Paulhus-Williams (2002) | 3 | Machiavellianism · Narcissism · Psychopathy |
17.2.4 Type Theories — MBTI
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the most-used type theory in HR. Built by Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine Cook Briggs on Carl Jung’s typology, it scores four dichotomies producing 16 personality types:
TipMBTI’s four dichotomies
- E – I: Extraversion vs Introversion (energy source)
- S – N: Sensing vs Intuition (information intake)
- T – F: Thinking vs Feeling (decision style)
- J – P: Judging vs Perceiving (orientation to outside world)
Despite popularity, MBTI is criticised for low test-retest reliability and weak predictive validity — Big Five enjoys better academic support.
17.2.5 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud (early 20th c.) proposed three personality structures:
- Id — primitive, pleasure-seeking, unconscious.
- Ego — rational, reality-oriented, mediating.
- Superego — moral, conscience, internalised norms.
His five stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital) shape adult personality.
17.2.6 Carl Rogers — Self-Theory
Rogers’s self-concept — actual self vs ideal self vs perceived self. Congruence is the basis of psychological adjustment.
17.2.8 Key Personality Attributes for OB
TipPersonality attributes that predict work behaviour
| Attribute | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Locus of Control (Rotter, 1966) | Internal (control my fate) vs External (fate controls me) |
| Self-Esteem | Self-evaluation of worth |
| Self-Monitoring (Snyder) | Ability to adjust behaviour to situational cues |
| Type A vs Type B (Friedman-Rosenman) | Time-urgent, competitive vs relaxed |
| Machiavellianism | Manipulative, pragmatic |
| Risk Propensity | Tolerance for risk |
| Self-Efficacy (Bandura) | Belief in one’s ability to perform |
| Proactive Personality | Initiates change in environment |
17.3 Perception
Perception is the process by which individuals organise and interpret sensory impressions to give meaning to their environment. Two people exposed to the same reality often see different things.
TipThree factors influencing perception
- The perceiver — attitudes, motives, interests, experience, expectations.
- The target — novelty, motion, sounds, size, background, proximity.
- The situation — time, work setting, social setting.
17.3.1 Process of Perception
17.3.2 Perceptual Errors and Shortcuts
TipCommon perceptual shortcuts and errors
| Shortcut / Error | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Selective perception | See what we expect to see | Manager reads only confirming data |
| Halo effect | One positive trait colours overall judgement | Smart-looking candidate seen as competent |
| Horn effect | One negative trait colours overall judgement | Poor handshake → seen as weak |
| Stereotyping | Judging by group membership | “All accountants are dull” |
| Projection | Attributing one’s own traits to others | Honest people assume others are honest |
| Contrast effect | Comparison with prior person distorts | Average candidate after a star looks weak |
| Primacy / Recency effect | First / last information dominates | Interview impression bias |
| Self-fulfilling prophecy / Pygmalion | Expectation creates the outcome | Rosenthal-Jacobson 1968 schoolchildren study |
| First-impression error | Quick judgement from initial cues | Influenced by appearance |
17.3.3 Attribution Theory — Kelley (1967)
When we judge why a person behaved as they did, Harold Kelley said we use three pieces of information:
TipKelley’s three criteria
| Criterion | Question | If yes — attribute to |
|---|---|---|
| Distinctiveness | Does the person behave this way only in this situation? | External (situation) |
| Consensus | Do other people behave the same way? | External (situation) |
| Consistency | Does the person behave this way every time? | Internal (person) |
NoteAttribution errors
- Fundamental attribution error — overestimating internal causes for others’ behaviour.
- Self-serving bias — attributing own successes to internal causes, failures to external.
- Actor-observer bias — attributing one’s own behaviour to situation, others’ to disposition.
17.4 Values
Covered in Topic 14. Highlights for individual behaviour: Rokeach’s terminal vs instrumental values; Allport-Vernon’s 6 orientations; Schwartz’s 10 universal values; Hofstede’s 6 cultural dimensions.
NoteGenerational values (Robbins)
- Veterans / Traditionalists (born 1925-45) — hard work, conservative, conformity.
- Boomers (1946-64) — success, achievement, ambition.
- Generation X (1965-80) — work-life balance, team-oriented, dislike rules.
- Millennials / Gen Y (1981-96) — confident, financially successful, social-cause-oriented.
- Generation Z (1997-2012) — digital natives, value diversity, mental-health aware.
17.5 Attitudes
An attitude is a learned evaluative tendency — favourable or unfavourable — toward an object, person, or event. Three components (ABC):
TipABC of attitudes
| Component | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| A — Affective | Emotional / feeling | “I love my job” |
| B — Behavioural | Behavioural intent | “I will work hard” |
| C — Cognitive | Belief / opinion | “My job is challenging” |
17.5.2 Cognitive Dissonance — Festinger (1957)
Leon Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory: psychological discomfort arises when two cognitions (or a cognition and behaviour) conflict. People reduce dissonance by:
- Changing behaviour.
- Changing the cognition.
- Adding a new cognition that justifies the behaviour.
A smoker who knows smoking is harmful either quits, denies the harm, or rationalises (“I’ll quit later”).
17.5.3 Attitude Change
Carl Hovland’s Yale Communication Approach (1950s) — attitude change depends on source credibility, message structure, audience characteristics.
17.6 Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience. Four major theoretical approaches:
TipFour families of learning theory
| Theory | Author | Mechanism | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Classical conditioning | Ivan Pavlov (1903) | Stimulus-stimulus association | Dog salivating to a bell |
| Operant conditioning | B.F. Skinner (1953) | Behaviour shaped by consequences | Rewarding desired behaviour |
| Cognitive learning | Edward Tolman | Cognitive maps; learning ≠ performance | Latent learning in rats |
| Social / Observational learning | Albert Bandura (1977) | Modelling, imitation, vicarious reinforcement | Children imitating aggression in Bobo doll experiment |
17.6.1 Reinforcement — Skinner
TipFour reinforcement strategies
| Strategy | Action | Effect | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Positive reinforcement | Give a desirable consequence | Strengthens behaviour | Bonus for high sales |
| Negative reinforcement | Remove an aversive consequence | Strengthens behaviour | Stop nagging when work is done |
| Punishment | Give an aversive consequence | Weakens behaviour | Reprimand for lateness |
| Extinction | Withdraw the reinforcement | Weakens behaviour | Stop laughing at a joker’s pranks |
17.6.2 Reinforcement schedules
- Continuous — reinforce every desired response. Fast learning, fast extinction.
- Intermittent — reinforce some responses. Slow learning, slow extinction.
Four intermittent schedules: Fixed-Interval, Variable-Interval, Fixed-Ratio, Variable-Ratio. Variable-Ratio (slot machines) produces the most resistant behaviour.
17.6.3 Shaping and Behaviour Modification
Shaping — reinforcing successive approximations toward target behaviour. Behaviour modification (OB Mod) — applying operant principles to organisational behaviour (Luthans-Kreitner).
17.7 Motivation
Motivation is the willingness to exert effort toward organisational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy individual needs. Theories split into two families:
TipMotivation theory families
| Family | What it asks | Theories |
|---|---|---|
| Content theories | What motivates? | Maslow · Herzberg · McClelland · ERG (Alderfer) |
| Process theories | How does motivation work? | Vroom Expectancy · Adams Equity · Locke Goal-setting · Skinner Reinforcement |
17.7.1 Content Theories
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943) — five levels, lower must be satisfied before higher:
TipMaslow’s hierarchy
| Level | Need | Workplace example |
|---|---|---|
| 5 (top) | Self-actualisation | Realising one’s potential |
| 4 | Esteem | Status, recognition |
| 3 | Social / Belongingness | Friendship, love |
| 2 | Safety / Security | Physical and psychological safety |
| 1 (bottom) | Physiological | Food, water, shelter |
NoteMaslow extensions
Maslow later (1970) added Cognitive needs (knowledge) and Aesthetic needs (beauty) between Esteem and Self-actualisation; and finally Transcendence above Self-actualisation. The classical pyramid is the 1943 five-level version.
Alderfer’s ERG (1969) — Existence · Relatedness · Growth. Three categories; allows frustration-regression (frustrated higher needs revert to lower).
McClelland’s Three Needs Theory (1961) — learned needs, vary across individuals:
- nAch — Need for Achievement.
- nAff — Need for Affiliation.
- nPow — Need for Power.
McClelland’s Achieving Society (1961) used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to measure these.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (1959) — based on interviews with engineers and accountants:
TipHerzberg’s two factors
| Factor | Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Hygiene factors (Maintenance) | Their absence causes dissatisfaction; their presence doesn’t motivate | Pay, working conditions, policies, supervision, job security |
| Motivators | Presence motivates; absence doesn’t dissatisfy | Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth |
NoteTwo-factor distinction
Herzberg’s radical claim: satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites on one continuum. They are separate dimensions — the opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction; the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction.
17.7.2 Process Theories
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1964) — motivation = the product of three perceptions:
\[\text{Motivation} = \text{Expectancy} \times \text{Instrumentality} \times \text{Valence}\]
- Expectancy (E → P) — Effort will lead to performance.
- Instrumentality (P → O) — Performance will lead to outcome.
- Valence (V) — Outcome is desirable.
Any one being zero zeros the motivation.
Adams’s Equity Theory (1963) — People compare their input/output ratio to a referent:
\[\frac{\text{Outcome}_{self}}{\text{Input}_{self}} \stackrel{?}{=} \frac{\text{Outcome}_{referent}}{\text{Input}_{referent}}\]
Perceived inequity (over- or under-payment) motivates corrective action — change input, change outcome, change cognition, change referent, or leave.
Locke & Latham’s Goal-Setting Theory (1968 onward) — Specific and difficult goals (when accepted) produce higher performance than general or easy goals. Four conditions: goal acceptance, goal commitment, feedback, ability.
Porter-Lawler Model (1968) — extension of Vroom that adds ability, role perception, equitable rewards; satisfaction is an outcome, not a cause, of performance.
Reinforcement Theory (Skinner) — behaviour is determined by its consequences; uses operant conditioning for motivation.
17.8 Practice Questions
Q 01
Big Five
Easy
The "OCEAN" Big Five personality dimensions are:
View solution
Correct Option: A
OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
Q 02
Performance predictor
Medium
Across most research, the Big Five trait that most consistently predicts job performance is:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Conscientiousness — the strongest, most universal predictor of job performance across occupations.
Q 03
MBTI
Medium
The MBTI is built on the typology of:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Briggs and Myers built MBTI on Carl Jung's typological theory.
Q 04
Locus of control
Medium
"Locus of control" — the degree to which people believe they control their own fate — was introduced by:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Julian Rotter (1966) — Internal vs External locus of control.
Q 05
Halo effect
Medium
An interviewer's positive view of a candidate's *appearance* leading her to rate the candidate highly on all other dimensions is the:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Halo = one positive trait colours all judgements. The negative counterpart is the *horn effect*.
Q 06
Attribution
Hard
In Kelley's attribution theory, high consensus, high distinctiveness and low consistency typically lead to:
View solution
Correct Option: B
High consensus + high distinctiveness + low consistency → external attribution. Low consensus + low distinctiveness + high consistency → internal.
Q 07
ABC of attitudes
Easy
The three components of an attitude (ABC) are:
View solution
Correct Option: B
ABC = Affective (feeling), Behavioural (intent), Cognitive (belief).
Q 08
Festinger
Medium
Cognitive Dissonance theory (1957) was put forward by:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Leon Festinger, *A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance* (1957).
Q 09
Pavlov-Skinner
Easy
Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning chiefly in that:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Skinner's operant conditioning shapes voluntary behaviour by reinforcement. Pavlov's classical conditioning pairs stimuli for involuntary responses.
Q 10
Reinforcement
Medium
A manager stops criticising an employee once she completes a task on time. This is an example of:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Negative reinforcement — removing an aversive stimulus (criticism) to *strengthen* a desired behaviour. Note: negative reinforcement is *not* punishment.
Q 11
Maslow
Easy
In Maslow's hierarchy, "esteem" needs sit:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Maslow's order bottom-up: Physiological → Safety → Social → Esteem → Self-actualisation.
Q 12
Herzberg
Medium
In Herzberg's two-factor theory, salary is a:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Salary, working conditions, supervision, company policy are hygiene factors. Their absence dissatisfies; their presence prevents dissatisfaction but does not motivate.
Q 13
ERG
Medium
Alderfer's ERG theory collapses Maslow's five levels into:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Clayton Alderfer (1969): Existence · Relatedness · Growth. Allows frustration-regression.
Q 14
McClelland
Medium
David McClelland's three learned needs are:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Need for Achievement, Affiliation, Power — McClelland's *Achieving Society* (1961), measured by TAT.
Q 15
Vroom
Medium
Vroom's Expectancy Theory states that motivation =
View solution
Correct Option: B
Vroom (1964): **Motivation = E × I × V** (multiplicative). Any term being zero zeros the motivation.
Q 16
Equity
Medium
Equity Theory of motivation is by:
View solution
Correct Option: B
J. Stacy Adams (1963) — Equity theory. Comparison of input/output ratio with a referent.
Q 17
Locke
Medium
Goal-setting theory — specific, difficult, accepted goals lead to higher performance — is by:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Edwin Locke and Gary Latham (1968 onward) — Goal-Setting Theory.
Q 18
Pygmalion
Hard
The Pygmalion / self-fulfilling prophecy effect in workplace performance was demonstrated by:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Rosenthal & Jacobson, *Pygmalion in the Classroom* (1968) — teachers' high expectations of randomly selected students improved their performance.
Q 19
Commitment
Hard
Meyer and Allen's *three-component model* of organisational commitment includes Affective, Continuance and:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Meyer & Allen (1991): Affective · Continuance · Normative (want / have / should stay).
Q 20
Match Theorist–Theory
Hard
Match the motivation theorist with the theory:
| (i) | Maslow | (a) | Equity |
| (ii) | Herzberg | (b) | Hierarchy of needs |
| (iii) | Adams | (c) | Two-factor |
| (iv) | Locke | (d) | Goal-setting |
View solution
Correct Option: A
Maslow — hierarchy; Herzberg — two-factor; Adams — equity; Locke — goal-setting.
17.8.1 Advanced Format Questions
AR 1Assertion-ReasonHard
A: Big Five (OCEAN) is the dominant trait model.
R: Conscientiousness predicts job performance across roles.
View solution
Correct Option: B
AR 2Assertion-ReasonMedium
A: Maslow's hierarchy is a content theory of motivation.
R: Vroom's expectancy is a process theory.
View solution
Correct Option: B
S 1Statement-basedMedium
Big Five (OCEAN): (i) Openness. (ii) Conscientiousness. (iii) Extraversion. (iv) Agreeableness. (v) Neuroticism.
View solution
Correct Option: A
S 2Statement-basedHard
Perception errors: (i) Halo. (ii) Stereotyping. (iii) Contrast. (iv) Self-serving bias.
View solution
Correct Option: A
17.9 Quick Recall
ImportantQuick recall
- Six building blocks: Personality · Perception · Attitudes · Values · Learning · Motivation.
- Personality determinants: heredity · environment · situation.
- Big Five (OCEAN) — Conscientiousness is the strongest performance predictor.
- Other trait models: Cattell 16PF · Eysenck PEN · HEXACO (+Honesty-Humility) · Dark Triad (Mach, Narcissism, Psychopathy).
- MBTI — 4 dichotomies → 16 types; built on Jung. Freud’s Id/Ego/Superego; Erikson’s 8 psychosocial stages.
- Key OB attributes: Locus of Control (Rotter 1966) · Self-monitoring (Snyder) · Type A/B (Friedman-Rosenman) · Self-efficacy (Bandura) · Machiavellianism · Proactive personality.
- Perception: 3 factors (perceiver/target/situation); shortcuts — Halo · Horn · Stereotyping · Projection · Contrast · Primacy/Recency · Pygmalion (Rosenthal-Jacobson 1968).
- Kelley attribution: Distinctiveness · Consensus · Consistency. Errors — Fundamental, Self-serving, Actor-observer.
- Attitudes ABC: Affective · Behavioural · Cognitive. Cognitive dissonance — Festinger 1957. Three commitments — Affective/Continuance/Normative (Meyer-Allen 1991).
- Learning: Classical (Pavlov) · Operant (Skinner) · Cognitive (Tolman) · Social (Bandura 1977 + self-efficacy).
- Reinforcement strategies: Positive · Negative · Punishment · Extinction. Schedules: Continuous vs Intermittent (FI · VI · FR · VR most resistant).
- Content motivation: Maslow (5 levels) · ERG (Alderfer 1969) · McClelland (nAch/nAff/nPow 1961) · Herzberg (Hygiene vs Motivator 1959).
- Process motivation: Vroom Expectancy (M = E × I × V, 1964) · Adams Equity (1963) · Locke-Latham Goal-Setting · Porter-Lawler (1968) · Skinner Reinforcement.